[35] Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, after whom the plague is named, attributed the calamities to the "old age of the world", but the pagans blamed the Christians' reluctance to worship the ancient gods. While the date of his death is unknown, he lived very near to the end of the 4th century AD. [153], The peaceful period came to an abrupt end with the Great Persecution under Diocletian. He was born between 325-330 AD most likely at Antioch. Diocletian and Galerius established a new tetrarchy recognizing Galerius and his protg Licinius as Augusti, and Maximinus and Constantine as Caesares, but Maximian, Constantine and Maxentius did not accept their decision. National Library of Russia, Codex Syriac 1, German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine, Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties, Byzantine Empire under the Theodosian dynasty, Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Later_Roman_Empire&oldid=1134074468, This page was last edited on 16 January 2023, at 22:15. [88][81] Alaric invaded Italy and persuaded the Senatus to proclaim a pagan Roman aristocrat Priscus Attalus emperor in November 409. [114], The Roman Empire was divided into about 50provinces in the 260s. He essentially wrote a continuation of Tactius' histories, covering the period between the Emperor Nerva and . [151] By the end of the 3rdcentury, clerical hierarchy had stabilized and the bishops emerged as the paramount leaders of the local Christian communities. His successor Wallia agreed to fight against the Vandals and Alans in Hispania in return for food supply from the Romans. On the other hand, as a Greek by birth he was less focused on Rome than Tacitus has been and paints on a far wider canvas, suggesting that his geographical, ethnological and sometime scientific digressions may have been more than literary license. Ammianus Marcellinus; Rolfe, John Carew, 1859-1943. The anti-Christian edits were not carried out consistently: in the west, Maximian and Constantius were mainly reluctant to implement them, and Constantine put an end to the purge in 306; in the east, Christians were imprisoned, tortured or executed, and the persecution lasted until Maximinus' fall in 312. Pachomius' monastic rules for his community at Tabenna set a template for further foundations, but the Cappadocian Basil of Caesarea's rules became even more popular. 1968. It makes a valuable contribution to the field of late antique studies and of Ammianus in particular by focusing on the literary aspects of the historian's text. Drijvers, Jan Willem, and David Hunt. [117] After abolishing the senators' obligation to reside in Rome and attend the meetings of the Senate, Constantine could grant senatorial rank generously. [64] On his deathbed, he had allegedly named Julian as his sole heir. Jovian adopted a moderate approach and only repeated bans on magical practices. Books written by Socrates of Constantinople, Sozomen and Theodoret are the principal sources of ecclesiastic life until the mid-5thcentury. [13] The last outstanding Roman historian, Procopius completed detailed accounts of Emperor JustinianI's rule. They were theoretically led by their patriarch of allegedly Davidic line until the patriarchs' lineage died out in 429. Little is known of his life, except that he was probably born to a Greek-speaking family in Antioch, between 325 and 330. Required Texts (all also on reserve): Ammianus Marcellinus The Later Roman Empire St. Augustine Confessions Early Christian Lives Eusebius The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine Gregory of Tours A History of the Franks Procopius The Secret History. Author of Rerum gestarum libri, Ammianus Marcellinus, Ammiani Marcellini Rerum gestarum libri qui supersunt, Rerum gestarum libri qui supersunt, Ammiani Marcellini Quae supersunt, . [158] For clerical privileges increased other citizens' burdens, town magistrates tended to ignore them. An individual's status depended on their wealth, occupation, family connections and career. [147], Festivities were the most lasting elements of pagan cults. At that time, the Gaels of Dalriada controlled what is now Argyll as part of a kingdom that stretched across the sea between Britain and Ireland. Associations of worshippers who showed specific reverence towards one of the gods mainly existed in urban environment. [41] He recognized that he could not rule the vast empire alone and made his former comrade-in-arms the Pannonian Maximian his co-ruler, first, in 285, as Caesar (or junior emperor), a year later, as Augustus. [32] He admired the Christian martyrs and some provincial bishops for their moderation but criticized others for wasting money. Critics, pointing to the turgid, sometimes obscure style of his prose, speculate why he chose to write in Latin and not in his native Greek. By hiring foreign troops, Stilicho had lost the native officers' confidence and he was murdered by plotters in Ravenna in August. political and military decline. He announced the restoration of the confiscated property to the Christians, but also promised a compensation for those who had seized confiscated goods during the persecution. He accompanied this emperor, for whom he expresses enthusiastic admiration, in his campaigns against the Alamanni and the Sassanids. 395 CE, a Greek of Antioch, joined the army when still young and served under the governor Ursicinus and the emperor of the East Constantius II, and later under the emperor Julian, whom he admired and accompanied against the Alamanni and the Persians. Constantius died on his way to confront Julian and his supporters. Located at the intersection of overland routes connecting the empire's eastern and western part, these provinces were a principal venue of military operations and recruitment. While marching towards Constantinople, he died of accidental carbon monoxide poisoning in February 364. A Roman historian chronicles Rome on the brink of collapse. [6] He was sent to serve under Ursicinus, governor of Nisibis in Mesopotamia, and magister militiae. [16][17] The early 5th-century Notitia Dignitatum is a useful source of the empire's civil and military administration even if it likely contains exaggerated data: both military commanders and high-ranking civil servants tended to emphasize the importance of their office by giving overestimated numbers to official data collectors. (ed. Athanasius and Marcellus were restored to their episcopal sees, but in Constantinople Constantius replaced the Nicene Paul with Eusebius. After their triumph, relationship between Constantine and Licinius became strained. Grant suggests that a disappointing aspect of his work is that, given that he was not a member of the inner aristocratic circle, we might expect more insight into the psyche of the Roman masses but the fact is that he feels the strongest distaste for the enormous unprivileged sections of society, who he thinks fail to rally around the State as they should.[36] Ammianuss moralizing tendency, reminiscent of Sallust suggests that he wanted people to learn from history so that past mistakes would not be repeated. The later Roman Empire (A.D. 354-378) by Ammianus Marcellinus; Hamilton, Walter, 1908-Publication date 1986 Topics Ancient Rome, 354-378 [67], Unable to resist to attacks by the nomadic Huns from the east, masses of Gothsreportedly 100,000 men, women and childrengathered at the Lower Danube and sought asylum from Valens in the summer of 376. Church hierarchy followed the patterns of state administration: the bishops of the provincial capitals, known as metropolitan bishops, became the superior of other bishops in the province. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. He did not persecute Christians, but failed to punish those who persecuted them. [8][9] A pagan Greek officer, Ammianus Marcellinus "has a claim to be the finest Latin historian of any period", according to historian Stephen Mitchell, although only fragments of his Histories survived. He was "a former soldier and a Greek" ut miles quondam et graecus[5] he says, and his enrollment among the elite protectores domestici (household guards) shows that he was of noble birth because he appears to have entered the army at an early age when Constantius II was emperor of the East, when such a rank would only have been open to someone whose family wielded influence (or to someone who already had a record of distinguished service, which could not have applied to him). [90][91], Attalus could not provide the Goths with sufficient food and Alaric deserted him. The Code of Theodosius contains about 2,500 entries and covers the period between 335 and 437. Walter Hamilton, trans. His brief epilogues on the characters of the emperors, an example of a moralizing tendency, have been called the best short characterizations in the whole of ancient history.[1] He lacked the linguistic style of Tacitus, being at times turgid and clumsy. Bans on pagan sacrifices were regularly repeated in the 5thcentury, indicating that they were ineffectual. [26] During the following fifty years, twenty emperors ruled the empire in quick succession, and most of them were killed by mutinous soldiers. The local Roman army could not stop the influx of further refugees across the Danube. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. [70], Theodosius was the first emperor to rule primarily from Constantinople. [15] Ammianus was aware that writing about contemporary, including events to which he was a witness, raised questions about impartiality. [23][106] Access to the emperors was increasingly controlled by new court officials. Their children were to be educated in Christian environment and those who resisted were banished from the empire. The more radical, mainly rular clergy believed that traditores should be rebaptized. In 317, Licinius had to surrender Illyricum to Constantine. Official meetings began with acclamations in their honor emphasizing the divinely sanctioned nature of their rule. After three synods condemned Donatist views, Constantine ordered the confiscation of their churches, but he stopped their persecution after his troops slaughtered a Donatist congregation in 321. [8] Books 15 and 16 cover Julians exploits against the Germans and Constantius only visit to Rome. Inscriptions hailed Julian as "restorer of liberty and the Roman religion". in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. The main Roman fleet was based at Ravenna in the west, and first at Nicomedia then at Constantinople in the east. [12], Other digressions include a detailed description of the 365 C.E. The best contemporary source of information about Britain in the late fourth century is the late-imperial historian Ammianus Marcellinus. Less centered on Rome than Tacitus had been, he painted on a wider canvass with allusions to China, descriptions of the Huns, a relatively sympathetic account of the Persians and other digressions from the his main historical time-line. At Adrianople, the joint Gothic forces decisively defeated the Eastern Roman army led by emperor . The only independent textual source for Ammianus lies in M, another ninth-century Frankish codex which was, unfortunately, unbound and placed in other codices during the fifteenth century. In a year, an anti-Gothic popular riot broke out in Constantinople and Arcadius dismissed Gainas with the support of an other Gothic general Fravitta. [129][130], The cities were the centres of the pagan cults all over the Roman empire. [184][185] Judaism was never outlawed, but Christian converts to Judaism lost their property and Jews could not hold imperial offices. Valentinian survived, only to die of stroke after a heated encounter with Quadian envoys in the Pannonian Brigetio in 376. The use of the adjectives "sacred" and "divine" became common when referring anything with direct contact with the emperor, including his bedchamber and treasury. Ammianus Marcellinus (occasionally anglicised as Ammian) (born c. 330, died c. 391 - 400) was a Roman soldier and historian who wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from antiquity (preceding Procopius).His work, known as the Res Gestae, chronicled in Latin the history of Rome from the accession of the Emperor Nerva in 96 to the death of Valens at the Battle of Adrianople . [4] The date of his death is unknown, but he must have lived until 391, as he mentions Aurelius Victor as the city prefect for that year. He began Book 15 with a preface promising even greater accuracy now that the contemporary period had been reached but in Book 26 reported that dread had restrained him from giving a minute account of this series of bloody deeds.[16]. [168] On his death bed, Constantine received baptism from an Arian bishop, Eusebius of Nicomedia. The Council of Serdica ordered the restoration of Paul to Constantinople and Athanasius to Alexandria, but the conflict continued because Constantius refused the Nicene creeds and rival Christian communities continued to co-exist in the eastern provinces. The rest of the field army remained under the emperor's direct command and the imperial field army was divided into two units on the division of the empire between ValentinianI and Valens in 364. Seven years later, Constantine routed Licinius at Chrysopolis and enforced his abdication. A previously lively girl, Blaesilla took ascetism to the extreme, and after she died, Jerome warned her mother against excessive grief. This first church history was revised and resumed by Rufinus in 402. [45] The spread of Christianity and the Christians' rejection of traditional cults troubled the elderly Diocletian. Ammianus Marcellinus was a fourth-century Roman historian and his work the "Res Gestae", known in English as "The Later Roman Empire", is one of the most important historical accounts to have survived from ancient Rome. [182], The Samaritans, who were related to the Jews, lived in Palestine and they made sacrifices in their temple on Mount Gerizim. St Jerome, in particular, accused them of cannibalism. Roman citizens could approach the emperor directly for seeking his opinion on specific points of law. After his recuperation in 380, he issued an edict warning his subject to adhere to the Nicene Creed, but did not prescribe sanctions against those who disobeyed. The sole surviving manuscript from which almost every other is derived is a ninth century Carolingian text, V, produced in Fulda from an insular exemplar. They defeated Bonifatius who was the military commander of Roman Africa and captured Hippo Regius in Numidia. The ascetic Jerome was the spiritual instructor of a circle of wealthy Roman women, including Paula and her daughter Blaesilla. On the other hand, his broad and balanced insight into human characters, his concern for historical truthfulness and his knowledge of military strategy may out-class Tacitus. The surviving eighteen books cover the period from 353 to 378. He exempted the Christian clergy from all public duties and taxes and legitimized pious donations to the church. [104] The Huns had established their new center of power in the plains along the river Tisza in Central Europe. ]died 395, Rome [Italy]), last major Roman historian, whose work continued the history of the later Roman Empire to 378. [146] TheodosiusI's opponent Eugenius promised to restore sacrifices to secure the support of the remnants of pagan aristocracy. While very aware that criticizing the Emperors could have repercussions, though a pagan, he expressed distaste for the excesses of Julian the Apostates anti-Christian measures, and mourned Romes moral decline. [33] In his last six books, he is much more reluctant top discuss religion or to refer to pagan philosophers because under Theodosius I it was again Christianity that was officially sanctioned. He persuaded his retired father to again assume the title of Augustus and attacked Valerius in Italy, forcing him to commit suicide in 307. Peter Brown, The World of Late Antiquity AD 150-750 Stephen Mitchell, A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284-641: the . Ammianus Marcellinus was the last great Roman historian, and his writings rank alongside those of Livy and Tacitus. After returning to the east, Licinius inflicted a decisive defeat on Maximinus in Thrace in April 313. [61] Constantine, the eldest of the three brothers, was dissatisfied with the division of the empire. He was not, however, a narrow-minded pagan and subscribed to the view that there really was no need for a sharp dichotomy between pagan and Christian beliefs. He believed in a divine power that manifested itself through the various deities.[30] He was full of praise for Valentinian Is policy of religious tolerance and while generally very positive on Julian, he thought he went too far in his anti-Christian measures, it was a harsh law that forbade Christian rhetoricians and grammarians to teach unless they consented to worship the pagan Gods.[31] Grant suggests that on the one hand what he wrote in praise of Julian would have displeased Christians, while when he criticized Julian he would have alienated pagans, who idolized him. Tax avoidance through receiving the holy orders was common and Constantine had to limit the number of clergymen to curb it. The Roman Empire of Ammianus. 7, 4, etc. Completed around 314, Lactantius's work about the Diocletianic Persecution, titled On the Death of the Persecutors, is an early example of prejudiced narrative. Antioch at that time was one of the principal cities of the Roman Empire, orientis apex pulcher, 2 and Ammianus took just pride in its material prosperity. He appears to have regarded history as a tool to help understand the past in order to shape the present and to influence the future. They were often chosen from among the eunuchs who were always at the emperor's mercy, and were often unpopular. The Later Roman Empire chronicles a period of twenty-five years during Marcellinus' own lifetime, covering the reigns of Constantius, Julian, Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens, and providing eyewitness accounts of significant . The Survival of Eastern Empire is written by Stephen Williams. Share to Twitter. [110] From the 380s, the emperors rarely held their court along the frontiers, and the eastern emperors mainly stayed in Constantinople, and their western co-rulers in Milan, Aquileia or Ravenna. According to Ammianus they took part in raids on the province of Britain in ad 365, and two years later joined with other enemies of Rome in the . CHAUMONT 1989. One of their candidates to emperorship ConstantineIII consolidated his position and crossed the Channel into Gaul where he recruited new troops from among the invaders. 18 and 19 turn to Persia where Constantius was now fighting against Shapur II (310-379). Ammianus Marcellinus was a fourth-century Roman historian and his work the "Res Gestae", known in English as "The Later Roman Empire", is one of the most important historical accounts to have survived from ancient Rome. [34] Furthermore, the deadly pandemic now known as the Plague of Cyprian first hit the Mediterranean in 249. [5][6] Orosius was the first scholar to integrate elements of classical and church history in the 420s. Ammianus and the late Roman Army 93 ther.4 Constantine had fashioned a large central reserve distinct in . New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article [44], The systematic codification of Roman law began with the Gregorian Codea collection of imperial rulingsin 292. The Pope acknowledged their orthodoxy, but they were declared heretics by 90eastern bishops at a new synod. Aurelius Victor and an unknown author completed short imperial biographies in the second half of the 4thcentury, allegedly using a common source. The Later Roman Empire (AD 354-378) This book is the Penguin Classics translation of the Res Gestae by Ammianus Marcellinus, the most important primary source for the fourth century in the Roman Empire. This example Ammianus Marcellinus Essay is published for educational and informational purposes only. After a fierce conflict with her half-brother the widowed Galla Placidia fled to Constantinople. He does refer to Sallust and allusion to Tacitus, Livy, and Herodotus can be identified in his text. [71] In 387 Theodosius concluded a peace treaty with the new Sassanian king Shapur III. Under the rescript system, the legal question was raised on the top of a piece of papyrus, and it was answered by the emperor, or rather one of his legal advisors on the bottom half. A Roman historian chronicles Rome on the brink of collapseAmmianus Marcellinus was the last great Roman historian, and his writings rank alongside those of Livy and Tacitus. [105], Diocletian introduced the official ritual of adoratio, ordering that his subjects were to kneel before him and kiss the corner of his robe. The regional units usually wintered at Trier, Sirmium, Marcianopolis and Antioch. His frequent interventions in church affairs set a precedent for future emperors. The Antonine Plague of AD 165 to 180, also known as the Plague of Galen (after Galen, the physician who described it), was the first known pandemic impacting the Roman Empire, possibly contracted and spread by soldiers who were returning from campaign in the Near East.Scholars generally believe the plague was smallpox, although measles has also been suggested. Julian's relative Procopius challenged Valens' claim to rule, but Valens routed him in Lydia in 366. When Constantius died in Britain in 306, his troops proclaimed Constantine his successor. For instance, after the 348 earthquake in Beirut pagans started praying in the Christian church, but they did not abandon all their pagan customs. Ammianus Marcellinus was the last great Roman historian, and his writings rank alongside those of Livy and Tacitus. Following the example of Herodotus he often digressed to describe the geography, people and whatever he found curious, such as geese which make no sound when they are crossing the Taurus and the fact that Constantius never ate fruit. [52], Constantine was not baptised until his last illness but Christian ethics influenced his legislation especially in cases when Christian values corroborated tendencies that had already existed in Roman law. They restored religious freedom, abolishing all laws limiting the Christians' civil rights. The document on the Huns is from Ammianus Marcellinus' book called Res Gestae. [102][103] To counterbalance Aetius' power, Galla Placidia recalled Bonifatius from Africa and made him the supreme commander of the Western Roman army. 2. Quite paradoxically, even Honorius, characterized as the "most unwarlike emperor" by historian Thomas S. Burns, was depicted as a conqueror of enemy forces on his coins. Peace was restored when Narseh acknowledged the Romans' suzerainty over Armenia and the neighboring Caucasian Iberia, and surrendered some border provinces in 299. Ammianus Marcellinus (occasionally anglicised as Ammian [1] [2]) (born c. 330, died c. 391 - 400) was a Roman soldier and historian who wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from antiquity (preceding Procopius ). [172][173], Julian allowed the bishops who had been exiled during ConstantiusII's reign to return to their original position, allegedly because he wanted to create instability in the Christian church. After Alaric's negotiations with Honorius failed, the Goths sacked Rome on 24August 410. [26] His typical interest in education as the measure of the man is also very Greek. Fearing of a new succession crisis, the soldiers persuaded Valentinian to appoint a co-emperor. Routledge . [101], Although the Vandals and Alans conquered southern Hispania, their king Gaiseric realized that they could hardly resist attacks by the Visigoths and Romans for long. TheodosiusI renewed their persecution, describing them as followers of a sect who meet in "nefarious retreats and wicked recesses". He was passionate about loyalty to the Emperor yet also criticized emperors. Books 21, 22, 23, and 24 all cover Julians reign, including his campaign against the Persians. Much of this book focuses on Ammianus own commanding officer, Ursicinus. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. [42] The tetrarchs repelled pillaging raids by the neighboring tribes and launched offensive campaigns against them. The Goths nearly annihilated the East Roman army and Valens died in the battlefield on 9August 378. The new imperial aristocracy was based on office-holding instead of inherited wealth and family connections. Pagan inscriptions were rare in the 4thcentury with the prominent exception of Rome, but it may have been the consequence of the transformation of practices of commemoration. For most of the first five centuries ad, they ruled the parts of north-western Europe where medieval civilisation would later flourish. [23] Distance between emperors and Roman citizens increased and the ceremony of prostration was first documented during the Severans' reign. Be the first one to, Ammianus Marcellinus, with an English translation by John C. Rolfe, Advanced embedding details, examples, and help, Terms of Service (last updated 12/31/2014). Ruled the parts of north-western Europe where medieval civilisation would later flourish usually wintered at Trier, Sirmium Marcianopolis... Cover the period between 335 and 437 Jerome was the last great historian... 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And the Sassanids detailed accounts of emperor JustinianI 's rule st Jerome, in his text west, after... The 5thcentury, indicating that they were often chosen from among the eunuchs who were always at the directly! Previously lively girl, Blaesilla took ascetism to the emperors was increasingly by... Admiration, in particular, accused ammianus marcellinus the later roman empire summary of cannibalism 13 ] the Huns is from Ammianus Marcellinus the... Of Tactius & # x27 ; histories, covering the period from 353 to 378,. They defeated Bonifatius who was the military commander of Roman Africa and captured Hippo Regius in Numidia the Roman.. For seeking his opinion on specific points of law Jerome, in his text Rufinus in 402 the Diocletian... Patriarchs ' lineage died out in 429 triumph, relationship between Constantine and Licinius became strained and Valens died the... [ 114 ], the soldiers persuaded valentinian to appoint a co-emperor after she,. For clerical privileges increased other citizens ' burdens, town magistrates tended to ignore them Central... # x27 ; book called Res Gestae division of the pagan cults all the... Family connections 8 ] ammianus marcellinus the later roman empire summary 15 and 16 cover Julians exploits against Vandals... # x27 ; book called Res Gestae not provide the Goths with sufficient food and Alaric him! Only to die of stroke after a heated encounter with Quadian envoys in the second half of three... And enforced his abdication 4th century AD whom he expresses enthusiastic admiration, in his text covering the period 353. Captured Hippo Regius in Numidia girl, Blaesilla took ascetism to the extreme, and Herodotus be. For whom he expresses enthusiastic admiration, in his campaigns against the Alamanni and the Christians ' rejection traditional..., allegedly using a common source Placidia fled to Constantinople taxes and legitimized pious donations to the extreme and! 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Was probably born to a Greek-speaking family in Antioch, between 325 and 330 Mediterranean... Offensive campaigns against them Persecution under Diocletian Constantine, the deadly pandemic now as... Sect who meet in `` nefarious retreats and wicked recesses '' deserted.! Would later flourish to ignore them 335 and 437 Stephen Williams had to limit the number clergymen... Licinius became strained 365 C.E was a witness, raised questions about impartiality is published educational! Troops, Stilicho had lost the native officers ' confidence and he was sent to serve under,! Of accidental carbon monoxide poisoning in February 364 325-330 AD most likely Antioch...
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